Waste Lipids Conversion to Sustainable Aviation Fuel
Training Center, Guangdong Food and Drug Vocational Technical School, Guangzhou 510663, China
| Abstract: | The decarbonization of the aviation sector requires scalable, drop-in sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) capable of meeting stringent performance specifications while achieving substantial lifecycle greenhouse gas reductions. Among certified SAF pathways, the upgrading of waste lipids—such as used cooking oil, animal fats, and acid oils—via catalytic hydroprocessing has emerged as the most technologically mature and commercially deployed solution. Owing to their intrinsic molecular similarity to long-chain hydrocarbons, triglycerides and free fatty acids provide a structurally favorable platform for jet fuel production. However, compositional heterogeneity, high free fatty acid content, contaminant-induced catalyst deactivation, and hydrogen-intensive deoxygenation pose significant upgrading challenges. Catalytic conversion toward jet-range hydrocarbons involves an integrated network of hydrogenation, hydrodeoxygenation, decarboxylation/decarbonylation, hydroisomerization, and selective hydrocracking reactions. Balancing hydrogen efficiency, carbon retention, and product selectivity within the C8–C16 range is central to achieving aviation-grade fuel specifications. Advances in multifunctional metal–acid catalysts, hierarchical porous materials, and hydrogen management strategies are improving jet fuel yield and process stability. Although feedstock availability limits long-term scalability, waste lipid valorization provides a critical near-term pathway for aviation decarbonization and serves as a technological foundation for future SAF innovations. Continued progress in catalyst design, renewable hydrogen integration, and process intensification will determine its evolving role within a low-carbon aviation ecosystem. |
| Keywords: | Waste Lipids; Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF); Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA); Hydrocracking; Jet-range Hydrocarbons |
| DOI: | 10.57237/j.cse.2026.01.002 |
View:
Downloads:
收稿日期: 2026-02-27
接受日期: 2026-03-19
在线出版日期: 2026-03-20
参考文献
| [1] | Chiaramonti D. Sustainable Aviation Fuels: the challenge of decarbonization. Energy Procedia 2019; 158: 1202–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYPRO.2019.01.308 |
| [2] | Ivanova B. Structural Analysis of Polylactic Acid in Composite Starch Biopolymers – A Stochastic Dynamics Mass Spectrometric Approach. Innov Discov 2024; 1: 26. https://doi.org/10.53964/ID.2024026 |
| [3] | Sanchez DL, Nelson JH, Johnston J, Mileva A, Kammen DM. Biomass enables the transition to a carbon-negative power system across western North America. Nat Clim Chang 2015;5:230–4. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2488 |
| [4] | Nematov DD. Titanium Dioxide and Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction: A Detailed Review of the Current Status and Future Prospects. Innov Discov 2025; 2: 5. https://doi.org/10.53964/ID.2025005 |
| [5] | Laveille P, Uratani J, Barron JGG, Brodeur-Campbell M, Chandak NR, George A, et al. Sustainable pilot-scale production of a Salicornia oil, its conversion to certified aviation fuel, and techno-economic analysis of the related biorefinery. Biofuels, Bioprod Biorefining 2022; 16: 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/BBB.2260 |
| [6] | Yao X, Strathmann TJ, Li Y, Cronmiller LE, Ma H, Zhang J. Catalytic hydrothermal deoxygenation of lipids and fatty acids to diesel-like hydrocarbons: a review. Green Chem 2021; 23: 1114–29. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0GC03707A |
| [7] | Lin CSK, Pfaltzgraff LA, Herrero-Davila L, Mubofu EB, Abderrahim S, Clark JH, et al. Food waste as a valuable resource for the production of chemicals, materials and fuels. Current situation and global perspective. Energy Environ Sci 2013; 6: 426–64. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee23440h |
| [8] | Sims REH, Mabee W, Saddler JN, Taylor M. An overview of second generation biofuel technologies. Bioresour Technol 2010; 101: 1570–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.11.046 |
| [9] | Shu Q, Gao J, Nawaz Z, Liao Y, Wang D, Wang J. Synthesis of biodiesel from waste vegetable oil with large amounts of free fatty acids using a carbon-based solid acid catalyst. Appl Energy 2010; 87: 2589–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.03.024 |
| [10] | Mazziotta A, Madsen R. Ruthenium-Catalyzed Dehydrogenative Decarbonylation of Primary Alcohols. European J Org Chem 2017; 2017: 5417–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejoc.201701173 |
| [11] | Li Z, Zhou G, Xie S, Zheng X, Xie C, Huang H, et al. Chemically catalytic upgrading of fermentation-derived biobutanol to long-chain biofuels. Sustain Chem Pharm 2024; 41: 101739. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCP.2024.101739 |
| [12] | Fu C, Li Z, Song W, Yi C, Xie S. A new process for separating biofuel based on the salt + 1-butanol + water system. Fuel 2020; 278: 118402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118402 |
| [13] | Xie S, Li Z, Zhu G, Yi C. One-pot reaction-separation process to produce jet fuel. Energy Convers Manag X 2022; 13: 100155. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECMX.2021.100155 |
| [14] | Cui X, Zhao X, Liu D. A novel route for the flexible preparation of hydrocarbon jet fuels from biomass-based platform chemicals: a case of using furfural and 2,3-butanediol as feedstocks. Green Chem 2018; 20: 2018–26. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8GC00292D |
| [15] | Shen R, Tao L, Yang B. Techno‐economic analysis of jet‐fuel production from biorefinery waste lignin. Biofuels, Bioprod Biorefining 2019; 13: 486–501. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.1952 |
| [16] | Aviation fuel | Neste n.d. https://www.neste.com/en-us/products-and-innovation/fossil-products/aviation-fuel (accessed March 4, 2026). |
| [17] | World Energy | Innovative Energy Solutions for Aviation and Beyond n.d. https://worldenergy.net/ (accessed March 4, 2026). |
| [18] | Sanicola L. Microsoft invests $50 million in alcohol-to-jet fuel biorefinery 2022. https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/microsoft-invests-50-million-alcohol-to-jet-fuel-biorefinery-2022-01-13/ |
| [19] | Xie S, Li Z, Luo S, Zhang W. Bioethanol to jet fuel: Current status, challenges, and perspectives. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2024; 192: 114240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.114240 |
| [20] | Jiao F, Li J, Pan X, Xiao J, Li H, Ma H, et al. Selective conversion of syngas to light olefins. Science (80-) 2016; 351: 1065–8. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf1835 |
| [21] | Demirbas A. Progress and recent trends in biofuels. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2007; 33: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PECS.2006.06.001 |
| [22] | Huang H, Intan NN, Tan J, Liu Z, Zhang D, Cai X, et al. Low-temperature hydrodeoxygenation of fatty acids to biodiesel via Ru–Mo strong metal-support interaction. AIChE J 2025: e70039. https://doi.org/10.1002/AIC.70039;REQUESTEDJOURNAL:JOURNAL:15475905;WEBSITE:WEBSITE:AICHE;WGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION |
| [23] | Xie S, Chen Z, Zhang W. Techno-economic Analysis of Jet Fuel Production from Vegetable Oil Using Self-produced Solvent and Non-noble Metallic Catalyst. Innov Discov 2025; 2: 16. https://doi.org/10.53964/ID.2025016 |
| [24] | Gonzalez-Garay A, Heuberger-Austin C, Fu X, Klokkenburg M, Zhang D, van der Made A, et al. Unravelling the potential of sustainable aviation fuels to decarbonise the aviation sector. Energy Environ Sci 2022; 15: 3291–309. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee03437e |
| [25] | Xie S, Li Z. Closing carbon and nitrogen cycles and addressing a critical global challenge: From seafood waste to sustainable chemicals. J Clean Prod 2023; 388: 135931. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2023.135931 |
| [26] | Huang H, Zhou G, Luo S, Xie S. Catalytic upgrading of chitin: Advances, mechanistic insights, and prospect. J Ind Eng Chem 2023; 128: 127–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JIEC.2023.08.014 |
| [27] | Xie S, Jia C, Wang Z, Ong SSG, Zhu MJ, Lin H. Mechanistic Insight into Selective Deoxygenation of l -Lysine to Produce Biobased Amines. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2020; 8: 11805–17. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c04052 |
| [28] | Huang H, Liu S, Guo X, Jiang H, Cai Y, Tan Z, et al. Sustainable ammonia and amines from chitin. Bioresour Technol 2024; 414: 131582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2024.131582 |
| [29] | Kim MY, Kim JK, Lee ME, Lee S, Choi M. Maximizing Biojet Fuel Production from Triglyceride: Importance of the Hydrocracking Catalyst and Separate Deoxygenation/Hydrocracking Steps. ACS Catal 2017; 7: 6256–67. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACSCATAL.7B01326/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/CS-2017-01326T_0010.JPEG |
| [30] | Xie S, Jia C, Prakash A, Palafox MI, Pfaendtner J, Lin H. Generic Biphasic Catalytic Approach for Producing Renewable Diesel from Fatty Acids and Vegetable Oils. ACS Catal 2019; 9: 3753–63. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.9b00215 |
| [31] | Jia C, Zhang C, Xie S, Zhang W, Wang Z, Lin H. One-pot production of jet fuels from fatty acids and vegetable oils in biphasic tandem catalytic process. Fuel 2021; 302: 121060. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUEL.2021.121060 |
| [32] | Liang G, He L, Cheng H, Li W, Li X, Zhang C, et al. The hydrogenation/dehydrogenation activity of supported Ni catalysts and their effect on hexitols selectivity in hydrolytic hydrogenation of cellulose. J Catal 2014; 309: 468–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcat.2013.10.022 |
| [33] | Hunsiri W, Chaihad N, Ngamcharussrivichai C, Tungasmita DN, Reubroycharoen P, Hinchiranan N. Branched-chain biofuels derived from hydroisomerization of palm olein using Ni/modified beta zeolite catalysts for biojet fuel production. Fuel Process Technol 2023; 248: 107825. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUPROC.2023.107825 |
| [34] | Alonso DM, Bond JQ, Dumesic JA. Catalytic conversion of biomass to biofuels. Green Chem 2010. https://doi.org/10.1039/c004654j |
| [35] | Galadima A, Muraza O. Catalytic upgrading of vegetable oils into jet fuels range hydrocarbons using heterogeneous catalysts: A review. J Ind Eng Chem 2015; 29: 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JIEC.2015.03.030 |
| [36] | Tang H, Dai Q, Cao Y, Li J, Wei X, Jibran K, et al. Production of jet fuel range hydrocarbons using a magnetic Ni–Fe/SAPO-11 catalyst for solvent-free hydrodeoxygenation of jatropha oil. Biomass and Bioenergy 2023; 177: 106927. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOMBIOE.2023.106927 |
| [37] | Santillan-Jimenez E, Morgan T, Shoup J, Harman-Ware AE, Crocker M. Catalytic deoxygenation of triglycerides and fatty acids to hydrocarbons over Ni-Al layered double hydroxide. Catal Today 2014; 237: 136–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2013.11.009 |
| [38] | Chen YK, Hsieh CH, Wang WC. The production of renewable aviation fuel from waste cooking oil. Part II: Catalytic hydro-cracking/isomerization of hydro-processed alkanes into jet fuel range products. Renew Energy 2020; 157: 731–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RENENE.2020.04.154 |
| [39] | Stöcker M. Biofuels and biomass-to-liquid fuels in the biorefinery: Catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass using porous materials. Angew Chemie - Int Ed 2008;47:9200–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200801476. |
| [40] | D CS, Devarajan Y, T R. Sewage sludge as a sustainable feedstock for biodiesel: Advances in conversion technologies and catalytic applications. Results Eng 2025; 25: 104000. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RINENG.2025.104000 |
| [41] | Vásquez MC, Silva EE, Castillo EF. Hydrotreatment of vegetable oils: A review of the technologies and its developments for jet biofuel production. Biomass and Bioenergy 2017; 105: 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOMBIOE.2017.07.008 |
| [42] | Fu J, Lu X, Savage PE. Catalytic hydrothermal deoxygenation of palmitic acid. Energy Environ Sci 2010; 3: 311–7. https://doi.org/10.1039/b923198f |
| [43] | Berenblyum AS, Podoplelova TA, Shamsiev RS, Katsman EA, Danyushevsky VY. On the mechanism of catalytic conversion of fatty acids into hydrocarbons in the presence of palladium catalysts on alumina. Pet Chem 2011; 51: 336–41. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0965544111050069 |
| [44] | Ahmadi M, Macias EE, Jasinski JB, Ratnasamy P, Carreon MA. Decarboxylation and further transformation of oleic acid over bifunctional, Pt/SAPO-11 catalyst and Pt/chloride Al2O3 catalysts. J Mol Catal A Chem 2014; 386: 14–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2014.02.004 |
| [45] | Abedi E, Sahari MA. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid sources and evaluation of their nutritional and functional properties. Food Sci Nutr 2014; 2: 443. https://doi.org/10.1002/FSN3.121 |
| [46] | Ochoa A, Barbarias I, Artetxe M, Gayubo AG, Olazar M, Bilbao J, et al. Deactivation dynamics of a Ni supported catalyst during the steam reforming of volatiles from waste polyethylene pyrolysis. Appl Catal B Environ 2017; 209: 554–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2017.02.015 |
| [47] | Zubr J. Dietary fatty acids and amino acids of Camelina sativa seed. J Food Qual 2003; 26: 451–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4557.2003.tb00260.x |
| [48] | Iqbal J, Martin S, Carney Jr. W. Feedstock Quality issue for biodiesel production. https://www.lsuagcenter.com/MCMS/RelatedFiles/%7BF89D987C-121F-49D6-92DC-0F77FB792BF7%7D/Feedstock-Quality.pdf |
| [49] | Xie S, Sun Z, Tan J, Zhang W, Cai X, Fang Y. Emerging Micromolecule-based Aqueous Two-phase Systems and Their Application in Biofuels. Innov Discov 2024; 1: 30. https://doi.org/10.53964/id.2024030 |
| [50] | Bhattacharjee J, Roy S. Advanced Techniques Using Ionic Liquids for Efficient Separation of Sugar Alcohols. Innov Discov 2025; 2: 3. https://doi.org/10.53964/ID.2025003 |
| [51] | Katibi KK, Shitu IG, Mutalovich AA, Abba MU, Zakar MN. Application of Nanocomposite Membrane Fibre Blended with CoFe2O4 Nanoparticles for the Sequestration of Bisphenol S from Aqueous Solution: Fouling and Permeability Studies. Innov Discov 2025; 2: 19. https://doi.org/10.53964/id.2025019 |
| [52] | Zhang Z, Zhang X, Wang Q. Influence of Impurities and Oxidation on Hydroconversion of Waste Cooking Oil into Bio-jet Fuel. Chem Eng Technol 2020; 43: 273–81. https://doi.org/10.1002/CEAT.201900357;WGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION |
| [53] | Zhang L, Su X, Zhou L, Li J, Xiao T, Li J, et al. Reversal Effect of Phosphorus on Catalytic Performances of Supported Nickel Catalysts in Reductive Amination of 1,6-Hexanediol. ChemSusChem 2024; 17: e202400211. https://doi.org/10.1002/CSSC.202400211;CTYPE:STRING:JOURNAL |
| [54] | Claus P, Berndt H, Mohr C, Radnik J, Shin EJ, Keane MA. Pd/MgO: Catalyst characterization and phenol hydrogenation activity. J Catal 2000; 192: 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcat.2000.2834 |
| [55] | Bond JQ, Upadhye AA, Olcay H, Tompsett GA, Jae J, Xing R, et al. Production of renewable jet fuel range alkanes and commodity chemicals from integrated catalytic processing of biomass. Energy Environ. Sci., vol. 7, 2014, p. 1500–23. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ee43846e |
| [56] | Reddy Kannapu HP, Kim M, Jeong C, Suh YW. An efficient CuCeO2 citrate catalyst for higher aliphatic ketone synthesis via alkali-free alkylation of acetone with butanol. Mater Chem Phys 2019; 229: 402–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2019.03.035 |
| [57] | Chintakanan P, Vitidsant T, Reubroycharoen P, Kuchonthara P, Kida T, Hinchiranan N. Bio-jet fuel range in biofuels derived from hydroconversion of palm olein over Ni/zeolite catalysts and freezing point of biofuels/Jet A-1 blends. Fuel 2021; 293: 120472. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUEL.2021.120472 |
| [58] | Wang HY, Bluck D, Van Wie BJ. Conversion of microalgae to jet fuel: Process design and simulation. Bioresour Technol 2014; 167: 349–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIORTECH.2014.05.092 |
| [59] | Tomasek S, Lónyi F, Valyon J, Hancsók J. Fuel purpose hydrocracking of biomass based Fischer-Tropsch paraffin mixtures on bifunctional catalysts. Energy Convers Manag 2020; 213: 112775. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENCONMAN.2020.112775 |
| [60] | Miao C, Marin-Flores O, Dong T, Gao D, Wang Y, Garcia-Pérez M, et al. Hydrothermal Catalytic Deoxygenation of Fatty Acid and Bio-oil with in Situ H2. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2018; 6: 4521–30. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACSSUSCHEMENG.7B02226/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/SC-2017-02226B_0008.JPEG |
| [61] | Xie S, Dong H, Peng X, Chu PK. Non-precious Electrocatalysts for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction. Innov Discov 2024; 1: 11. https://doi.org/10.53964/ID.2024011 |
| [62] | Kim JH, Cook M, Peeva L, Yeo J, Bolton LW, Lee YM, et al. Low energy intensity production of fuel-grade bio-butanol enabled by membrane-based extraction. Energy Environ Sci 2020; 13: 4862–71. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ee02927k |
| [63] | Xie S, Huynh TH, Qin P, Tan T, Lin H. Facile biphasic catalytic process for conversion of monoterpenoids to tricyclic hydrocarbon biofuels. J Energy Chem 2020; 49: 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2020.01.032 |
| [64] | Sun YS, Qu W. Dietary Apigenin promotes lipid catabolism, thermogenesis, and browning in adipose tissues of HFD-Fed mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 133: 110780. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FCT.2019.110780 |
| [65] | Hossain MZ, Chowdhury MBI, Jhawar AK, Xu WZ, Charpentier PA. Continuous low pressure decarboxylation of fatty acids to fuel-range hydrocarbons with in situ hydrogen production. Fuel 2018; 212: 470–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.09.092 |
| [66] | King AE, Brooks TJ, Tian YH, Batista ER, Sutton AD. Understanding ketone hydrodeoxygenation for the production of fuels and feedstocks from biomass. ACS Catal 2015; 5: 1223–6. https://doi.org/10.1021/CS501965W/SUPPL_FILE/CS501965W_SI_001.PDF |
| [67] | Tanzil AH, Brandt K, Wolcott M, Zhang X, Garcia-Perez M. Strategic assessment of sustainable aviation fuel production technologies: Yield improvement and cost reduction opportunities. Biomass and Bioenergy 2021; 145: 105942. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOMBIOE.2020.105942 |
| [68] | Grudanova AI, Gulyaeva LA, Krasilnikova LA, Shmelkova OI, Boldushevskii RE. Jet fuel and arctic diesel fuel production by isodewaxing of waxy middle distillate fractions. Fuel 2017; 193: 485–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.12.032 |
| [69] | Sharifvaghefi S, Zheng Y. Deoxygenation of stearic acid with a novel ni (CO)-MoS2/Fe3S4 Catalyst. Can J Chem Eng 2018; 96: 231–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.23027 |
| [70] | Eller Z, Varga Z, Hancsok J. Renewable jet fuel from kerosene/coconut oil mixtures with catalytic hydrogenation. Energy and Fuels 2019; 33: 6444–53. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.ENERGYFUELS.9B00996/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/EF-2019-009968_0010.JPEG |
| [71] | Sugami Y, Minami E, Saka S. Hydrocarbon production from coconut oil by hydrolysis coupled with hydrogenation and subsequent decarboxylation. Fuel 2017; 197: 272–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.02.038 |
| [72] | Liao J, Zhong Q, Gu J, Qiu S, Meng Q, Zhang Q, et al. New approach for bio-jet fuels production by hydrodeoxygenation of higher alcohols derived from C-C coupling of bio-ethanol. Appl Energy 2022; 324: 119843. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY.2022.119843 |
| [73] | Peng B, Zhao C, Kasakov S, Foraita S, Lercher JA. Manipulating catalytic pathways: Deoxygenation of palmitic acid on multifunctional catalysts. Chem - A Eur J 2013; 19: 4732–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201203110 |
| [74] | Vam A. Kinetics of The Hydro-deoxygenation of Stearic Acid over Palladium on Carbon Catalyst in Fixed-Bed Reactor for the Production of Renewable Diesel. UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON, 2013. |
| [75] | Rabaev M, Landau M V., Vidruk-Nehemya R, Koukouliev V, Zarchin R, Herskowitz M. Conversion of vegetable oils on Pt/Al2O3/SAPO-11 to diesel and jet fuels containing aromatics. Fuel 2015; 161: 287–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUEL.2015.08.063 |
| [76] | Hengsawad T, Srimingkwanchai C, Butnark S, Resasco DE, Jongpatiwut S. Effect of Metal-Acid Balance on Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet Fuel Synthesis from Hydrocracking and Hydroisomerization of Biohydrogenated Diesel over Pt-Supported Catalysts. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018; 57: 1429–40. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.IECR.7B04711/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/IE-2017-047119_0013.JPEG |
| [77] | Bhattacharjee S, Tan CS. Production of Biojet Fuel from Octadecane and Derivatives of Castor Oil Using a Bifunctional Catalyst Ni-Pd@Al-MCF in a Pressurized CO2-Hexane-Water Solvent. Energy and Fuels 2022; 36: 3119–33. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.ENERGYFUELS.1C03881/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/EF1C03881_0008.JPEG |
| [78] | Li T, Cheng J, Huang R, Zhou J, Cen K. Conversion of waste cooking oil to jet biofuel with nickel-based mesoporous zeolite Y catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2015; 197: 289–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIORTECH.2015.08.115 |
| [79] | Serrano DP, Aguado J, Escola JM. Developing advanced catalysts for the conversion of polyolefinic waste plastics into fuels and chemicals. ACS Catal 2012; 2: 1924–41. https://doi.org/10.1021/cs3003403 |
| [80] | Han Z, Xue Q, Hu X, Guo T, Ma J, Guo Q. A Comprehensive Review of Chemical Looping Ammonia Synthesis. Innov Discov 2024; 1: 9. https://doi.org/10.53964/id.2024009 |
| [81] | Yang H, Hu P, Li Z, Hu C. Catalytic Conversion of Complex Reactant Systems Makes the World Greener, More Sustainable and Hopeful: Where and How to Go? Innov Discov 2024; 1: 8. https://doi.org/10.53964/ID.2024008 |
| [82] | Demel J, Čejka J, Štěpnička P. Palladium catalysts deposited on silica materials: Comparison of catalysts based on mesoporous and amorphous supports in Heck reaction. J Mol Catal A Chem 2010;329:13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2010.06.011 |
| [83] | Zhou J, Gao Z, Xiang G, Zhai T, Liu Z, Zhao W, et al. Interfacial compatibility critically controls Ru/TiO2 metal-support interaction modes in CO2 hydrogenation. Nat Commun 2022; 13: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27910-4 |
| [84] | Saviola AJ, Syoufian A, Oh WC, Wijaya K. Atmospheric hydrotreatment of used palm cooking oil over nickel-dispersed phosphated zirconia as highly stable nano-catalyst for bio-jet fuel production. Inorg Chem Commun 2025; 173: 113790. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.INOCHE.2024.113790 |
| [85] | Zhang Z, Cheng J, Zhu Y, Guo H, Yang W. Jet fuel range hydrocarbons production through competitive pathways of hydrocracking and isomerization over HPW-Ni/MCM-41 catalyst. Fuel 2020; 269: 117465. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUEL.2020.117465 |
| [86] | Li M, Fu J, Xing S, Yang L, Zhang X, Lv P, et al. A novel catalyst with variable active sites for the direct hydrogenation of waste oils into jet fuel. Appl Catal B Environ 2020; 260: 118114. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2019.118114 |
| [87] | Lin CH, Wang WC. Direct conversion of glyceride-based oil into renewable jet fuels. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2020; 132: 110109. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2020.110109 |
| [88] | Scaldaferri CA, Pasa VMD. Hydrogen-free process to convert lipids into bio-jet fuel and green diesel over niobium phosphate catalyst in one-step. Chem Eng J 2019; 370: 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2019.03.063 |
| [89] | Pires APP, Han Y, Kramlich J, Garcia-Perez M. Chemical composition and fuel properties of alternative jet fuels. BioResources 2018; 13: 2632–57. https://doi.org/10.15376/BIORES.13.2.2632-2657 |
| [90] | Dietrich PJ, Lobo-Lapidus RJ, Wu T, Sumer A, Akatay MC, Fingland BR, et al. Aqueous phase glycerol reforming by PtMo bimetallic nano-particle catalyst: Product selectivity and structural characterization. Top Catal 2012; 55: 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11244-012-9775-5/FIGURES/17 |
| [91] | Liu J, Peng X. Interface-engineering of the Catalysts for Efficient Electrocatalytic Upcycling of Polyethylene Terephthalate Waste. Innov Discov 2024; 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.53964/ID.2024001 |
| [92] | Deng J, Ren P, Deng D, Bao X. Enhanced Electron Penetration through an Ultrathin Graphene Layer for Highly Efficient Catalysis of the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction. Angew Chemie Int Ed 2015; 54: 2100–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/ANIE.201409524 |
| [93] | Kumar A, Semwal S, Choudhury J. Catalytic Conversion of CO2 to Formate with Renewable Hydrogen Donors: An Ambient-Pressure and H2 -Independent Strategy. ACS Catal 2019; 9: 2164–8. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.8b04430 |
